Caste separates people into privileged and unprivileged, creates difference marking superiority and inferiority, projects two distinct worlds that can never be united, for a long time, commanding the thinking sense. Literature voices the pain of being a victim of caste oppression, terror and violence generated by caste differences, caste as infection, ailing the humanity. Some of the short stories written in Maithili translated into English capture the caste oppression in the allegorical tone. These stories set in rural background, project the victimization of caste oppression, gender and caste as a form of double oppression, sustaining the poetic imagery that translates pain and suffering. These stories underline caste conflicts in physical space, economic, political and cultural anxieties emanating from caste differences, and violence as a mark of existence.

Talking about caste is a complex task, in underlining pain and suffering simultaneously, and fearlessly portraying the existing unequal society. As Sharmila Rege notes, writing about caste sometimes appears as betraying the nation as in her words, “In the postcolonial period too, the public and political expression of caste was seen as a backward ideology having a retarding effect on class struggle and even as a betrayal of the nation.” (Rege 39), writing about caste is a device of unmarking the illusion of justice, or virtue of Indian civilization. The selected stories Prabhas Kumar Choudhary’s “The Rainbow”, Ashok Kumar Jha’s “Anticurrent” and Ramesh Jha’s “Kailash Mandal's Philips Radio” explore caste conflicts in terms of exhibiting unruly civilization or the society divided of caste. These three stories have the common approach of identifying class in terms of caste, at the same time dividing people who attribute caste as equal to class. In the postcolonial tone, class and caste are interchangeably victimizing the inhabitants. Though eradication of caste differences is recorded in papers, class consciousness which makes the caste to be present is still victimizing the sufferers. The stories show how people from one particular group are deprived of the freedom, how their childhood is robbed, how their sense of self-acceptance is questioned, and how they strive to resist against the injustice in the society.

Prabhas Kumar Choudhary’s short story “The Rainbow” translated by Rajanand Jha is an example of transformation of the whole village marked by caste conflicts. The story marks the degraded social identity of the upper castes, as the narrator is still in the process of unlearning the caste hierarchy and supremacy, and is still adjusting to the new system where his status of upper cast is being challenged. The narrator who stays away from the village, returns to his home, to ease his mother who stays alone in the village, who is constantly feeling insecure because of the repeated quarrels between the people of upper cast and the lower cast, which is a threat to the tranquillity of the village which was there once. Though the title “The Rainbow” signifies beauty and joy, in reality it signifies disturbance. The narrator’s mother knows no politics, is neutral regarding the caste status, but anxious about the future dangers in the village. The narrator is ready to dislocate himself from the upper caste status. Anil, a young boy, narrator’s relative, one of the prominent members of upper caste group, is unable to accept the equality of the society, tries to oppress the lower caste people by inflicting violence. Anil has the strong view that, class less society can never be achieved, it’s an illusion. Is he true? Class less society will never be achieved? The other factors in the story confirm to this harsh reality. The division of the villagers into the rulers and ruled, owners and the workers, and each group is trying to assert their own sense of dignity, more essentially the third group of rich landlords, money lenders, pseudo reformists, utilizing the caste conflicts for their own selfish ends, the fourth group of the innocent villagers of both castes suffering, exhibit the multi layers of caste conflicts.

The story portrays the shift where the upper caste people are struggling to accept the reality that people cannot be owned by anybody like property, as the narrator recalls he can no longer be called “master” by the villagers. The story in its refinement, asserts the end of master slave relationship between the upper castes and the lower castes. Parallel to this portrayal, the story speaks about the hidden mask of equality of people, which the rich people use, as Mahakant Jha and Bhutta Jha, pseudo communists, try to teach the labourers the concept of equality. They make the labourers turn against their masters. Their intentions are not really helping the poor, but to be recognized as reformists, to contest in elections, and win the favour of people. As a consequence of their plan, the labourers stop working in Saroj Bhaiya’s farm for three months. As Saroj makes his worker Parabodhana’s wife to come his home repeatedly to collect her wages, the agitation begins.

Caste as an unscientific mechanism of division prevents the full participation of the entire society. The village portrayed in the short story, is a microcosm for the nation, where the political conflicts of the caste, create the never ending psychological conflict for an individual. The upper caste people in the village are shocked to learn the betraying attitude of the lower castes. They feel their supreme status which once they have enjoyed, is going to be a mere fairy tale, as Saroj thinks, because of the absence of coordination among the upper castes, the lower castes became free. His upper caste status conditions him to feel superior and exercise his ownership against the lower casts.

The story talks of political conflicts, where the diplomatic people from lower cast try to take the advantage of the sufferings of their own people, use them for their own monitory gain. Sutta Khatabe and Munara are criticised for creating violence in the village, making the poor to suffer. Sutta Khatabe from Khatabe-Dhanuk community threatens Kashi Choudhary, with a heavy staff, showing his complete anger, warns him about the consequences if Kashi Babu refuses his wages. The entire episode appears dramatic, as it just exhibits Kashi’s temporary failure. The next day Sutta’s father apologizes Kashi Babu, which shows how the older generation still believe in the supremacy of the high caste people.

This incident also marks the innocent victimization at the deeper level. The upper castes become violent with anger. Sutta, comes with the staff in his hand, asks his father not to plead Anil. “I will continue to hurl my choicest abuses at the babhanas.” (Choudhary 153), he says in his anger, questioning the upper castes. He sharply criticises “We live by the sweat of our brow and for that we are of lower caste and these idle drones are of upper caste?". (Choudhary 153) his question marks his right to equal dignity deserved for his work. The story takes its violent turn when the mob, employed by Anil try to catch Sutta, but he flees away, they capture Yadua, Sutta’s father, and beat him violently. Munara threatens Kashi Babu that, Yadua should be free from the mob. They leave Yadua, couldn’t find Munara, and so attack his wife, tearing off her sari. Munara keeps hiding in the house. It is Munara’s wife, who becomes the actual victim of the situation, when her husband stays hiding in the house. It is the old Yadua who becomes the actual victim of violence underpinned by caste conflicts, when his son stays untouched. Then the people from lower caste, start attacking the Upper caste people. “The poor lame Vishwanath Mishra, sitting in his dalan was picked up and flung like a frog. While returning from the temple, Pandit Musahar Jha was knocked down to the ground with the flower-vase in his hand.” (Choudhary 153). These political conflicts make the innocent people to be the victims, and subjected to helplessness. People from both groups, play the caste politics safely, leaving the innocent villagers to suffer. Nami Babu, one of the money lenders in the village, acts neutral at this situation, which is more dangerous to the village.

Diplomatic people from upper caste play with the anxieties of the lower castes, to be recognized as the reformists like Satinath Jha, a widower, a member of Lok Dhal, who pretends as a liberal, uses the caste politics for his selfish ends. The narrator, a conscious individual, is shocked to see this division. He asks, “What is all this? Dalit's revival? Caste conflict and class struggle? What is all this for? So-called leaders envenom the social fabric in the name of caste to raise a vote bank for themselves?” (Choudhary 155). Caste becomes a weapon for the vote seekers. In talking about caste in these lines, exposing the true nature of politicians, pseudo communists, the rich, the diplomatic, the powerful, the safe players of neutral attitude, Choudhary appears questioning Democracy as a mere dream.

The story critiques the poor victimization arising out of cast conflicts as Vaishumpavalli’s daughter-in-law makes sharp remarks about their condition.

Sutta pulls rickshaw in town and Munara works as mason from village to village. They have nothing to worry about. Leaving us in the lurch, they are enjoying themselves. We have nothing to eat. Our children go hungry! You people take no pity on us. You have dismissed us from domestic work. Our cattle would die from lack of fodder. On this dam they are grazing as we are not allowed to graze them on the fields and orchards. They are bound to die. It is all owing to Sutta and Munara. (Choudhary 161)

Equally, the caste conflicts generate tension among the upper caste middle class, as they need workers for their agricultural activities as Munna Babu from the upper caste middle class sums up the whole conflict as:

Kashi Babu's bread is buttered on both sides now. He is sure to raise enough money by way of this. Nami Babu is already in his favour. As for Munara and Sutta, they would call them just tomorrow and shake hands. They belong to his own Tola. We the rest of the villagers, would be fooled. Kashi has nothing to care for his farm and fields. Your land will remain fallow while he would rejoice in it. (Choudhary 159)

So the rainbow is a disturbing one, with cruel wings, covering the entire sky, where national interests are being mechanized by the politicians. The story questions weather freedom is a real one or an illusion as innocent people, not belonging to any group, are deprived of their livelihood. In interplaying with the concept of caste and class, the story incises the roots of the caste system.

Ashok Kumar Jha’s short story “Anticurrent” translated by Sanjiv Kumar Choudhary presents cast conflicts and lost childhood. Dhanmanti’s son Arjun, a fourteen year old, inherits his mother’s qualities of subservience to the upper castes, for he is mocked by his fellow people. It is also the time of revival, where agitations against upper caste supremacy is rising. Arjun is ready to take the leftover food from the old master’s house, even though he is told by the people of his caste that, they shouldn’t take leftover food from the upper casts. “Khabasins don’t take the leftover food these days. “Their caste people forbid them to work as Khabas and Khabasin in the haveli; it's considered demeaning.” (Jha 239). Similar to the conflicts portrayed in terms of hunger and starvation in “The Rainbow”, here too people like Arjun and his helpless mother, to fill their hunger, act against the people of their own caste. Arjun is targeted by the people of his caste, when he is on his way to attend the old master Pandit Ganeshwar Jha’s sraddha, where delicious food in large quantities will be served. They mock at him, making his innocent self to be tormented.

Economic conflicts are exemplified in the story as Baua Jha’s family and his large number of relatives enjoy the food and waste a lot of it, Arjun’s home doesn’t even have a bit of sugar to make tea. Arjun’s tired body feels that, a cup of tea is needed in the harsh winter, his current circumstances prevent him from having just a cup of tea. His mother cannot give him a tea as there is no sugar left in the house, in the haveli, he is repeatedly sent for different works, and he struggles to have a cup of tea. This critical situation portrays hunger, and its cruel faces.

One of the differences that marks the people into castes is food habits. The food habits and conversion to other food habits is ironically portrayed in the story. Arjun’s Father Lootan Marar stopped taking meet. He had taken “kanti” from an ascetic. His old master and wife scolded him but he remained vegetarian. Dhanmanti attributes the reason for his untimely death to his conversion to vegetarian food practise. Since consuming vegetarian food marks a particular caste and its identity, Lootan Marar is criticised for changing his original self.

The story highlights in the name of tradition, how people are subjected to injustice. Arjun imitates Baua Jha’s thinking, in an admiration to the masters. In the process of admiration, Arjun loses himself. One of the examples for this can be found in the story, where Arjun insists that, everyone should wash their hands after having tea, and keeps on passing the pitcher for the guests to wash their hands. People present there criticise him for being like a Pandit, like the member of upper caste. Behaving like the other, is also one of the reasons for the long continued survival of caste system. Admiration leads to self-hatred, resulting lowering of one’s own identity. The story marks this psychological conflict, where Arjun and his mother are caught in a complex anxiety where they hate themselves, each small act of resembling the masters either in speaking or practising their habits, giving a temporary status of being the member of acceptable group. While Lootan Marar’s food conversion is criticised by Dhanmanti, she herself gets fascinated by her son’s elitist habits. That’s when the inability to accept themselves rupture their psychological space. One of the other reasons for Arjun’s servitude is his fear to the master. As a grownup boy who thinks about his life, his mother’s helplessness, his family and it’s need for hunger, as a disturbed child who needs the warmth of affection in place of commands, an appreciation for little things he does, as an unprivileged in multiple phases, Arjun’s lost childhood is the folly of the nation.

The story takes its crucial turn where Baua Jha’s ego is challenged by Jawahar, a young boy Arjun manages to bring for Sradha for the wages of 20 rupees. Arjun’s tongue gets burnt with too much lime in the pan, and Jawahar asks Baua Jha to change his tongue. Baua Jha’s status of being a member of the upper caste, ability to recite holy scripts, his long continued belief of himself about holiness, are challenged. “...this Jawahira, this wimp of a boy, is challenging me. He's asking me to change Arjun's tongue! As though it were some nut or bolt." (Jha 255). Baua Jha knows that, changing Arjun’s tongue is impossible, hence he becomes invaded by intolerable anger. Arjun’s burnt tongue metaphorizes the fractured identity he is subjected to have. He lost father, he lost childhood, he lost self-esteem, cannot join the people of his own caste, cannot continue serving the masters, symbolizing complete victimization in the name of caste. But the challenge to Baua Jha presents the hope of equality to be attained at any point of time.

The story is set in the village where, people are subjected to believe in supremacy of learning. Since the opportunity to learn rests with the higher castes, the lower castes are continued to be silenced in the name of knowledge. The story details how Ganeshwar Jha’s sraddha is characterized by chanting mantras, music, serving variety of food items, slaughtering of the goats, discussions on politics, linguistics, literature, interpretations on Vedas, Upanishads, Karma, death, debates on purity and impurity, quoting Shlokas, and no thoughts about humanity, equality and justice. It presents the conflict between Baua Jha of Srotriya, and Jawahar of working class, where Jawahar is able to do which many of the villagers couldn’t dare to think. The story is a sharp critique of caste system which is imposed on society in the name of holiness. Ashok Kumar Jha’s critical intervention of exploring caste conflicts in terms of religion, is a severe threat to the propositions of equating a religion with one’s way of life.

Caste is an inseparable structure in Indian social life even in modern times, as Velassery and Patra note:

...caste is said to be both an illusion as well as a fantasy. It is an illusion as it is a mental creation of the society that we live in; it is a fantasy as it has paved way for diverse types of intellectual stimulation that has created various forms of mental delusions in India. Though caste cannot be accorded any kind of intellectual legitimacy nor scientific validity, yet caste as a social stratification of individuals add its political and social recognition in these times of modernity too. (Velassery and Patra 1)

Ramesh Jha’s short story “Kailash Mandal's Philips Radio” translated by Bhairatveshwar Jha speaks how caste is an illusion, an unscientific theory to put people into silence, or how caste as a fantasy, challenging the reality. The story is an interplay of caste hierarchies and village politics. Kailash is a sweet natured boy, a loving son, but “...for the haveli as well as people of the brahman Tola who acknowledge him as a ‘Shudra’, he was a recalcitrant backward. (Ramesh Jha 300). Kailash is resilient to the caste practises. Like Arjun in “Anticurrent”, Kailash lost his childhood, hunger spreads its wings over his family, and he leaves the village, to work in Punjab. His father lost his life to the floods of river Kamla, when he was picking the left over sweet potatoes in the fields. After losing his father, Kailash’s sufferings began. He is called as Kaila, by the villagers, a distorted form of his name. It signifies his distorted identity. His master Baua Jha of the haveli couldn’t tolerate Kailash working elsewhere. Baua Jha thinks, it is Kailash’s mother who sent Kailash away. Baua Jha awaits for revenge against her. The story begins when Kailash returns home from Punjab, making his mother delighted. When she doesn’t come for work at Baua Jha’s haveli, it annoys him. Baua Jha feels threatened of being robbed of his domination over the family. “He's earned a little money and has on him the air of Punjab, eh? Till yesterday she used to sit by the cowshed for rice-water and leftovers of food, and beg; ‘Master, don't give that to the oxen. Give me instead’ and today that her son has come home, she...” (Ramesh Jha 304). Baua Jha expects the subservience of Kailash and his mother, when that is challenged, he thinks of new ways to ensue fear among them.

Kailash brings a radio from Punjab to please his mother, which becomes a metaphor for their newly acquired independence. Baua Jha finds no meaning in their independence, and their self-esteem, and try to make them inferior again. He asks Gajinder and Surinder to trick Kailash, and they get succeeded in making Kailash to take loan, and become subjected to his inability to pay back. Kailash is reduced to the subservient state again, tries to go to Punjab again for work. But Baua Jha threatens the villagers that, if anybody gives any loan to Kailash, they should be ready to face adverse consequences. Kailash becomes a ploughman again in Baua Jha’s fields. The story brings forth a serious situation, where many adverse stories are untold, where fear is generated among the villagers, and the high caste status remains unquestioned. Criticising the upliftment of the downtrodden, Baua Jha says “Certainly the government has spoiled them by making a lot of propaganda, no doubt. Else, how could Kaila be having breakfast of fried bread while his kitchen is still unclean?" (Ramesh Jha 304), introducing his fear of losing the proprietorship over the family what he had till now. With his own fear of the achievement of class less society, he creates fear among the others. Class less society becomes an illusion, as people like Baua Jha tries myriad ways to crush the thought of attaining a class less society. Baua Jha uses his money and man power to challenge two innocent individuals, making the existence of Harijan police station or special courts for backward classes to be a failure. Baua Jha cages the new thoughts Kailash acquired in Punjab.

Listening a radio becomes a new sign of independence in Kailash’s mother’s life. She soon learns how to tune into Darbhanga radio station and listens the folk songs. What Kailash brought in his mother’s life, is her dream world coming into reality. She becomes attached to the radio, remembering all her life, acquiring new self. Once Kailash fails to repay his loan, the radio is taken away. That fragments her newly acquired self. She is heartbroken as her new sense of independence was a temporary state. But the story leaves a question what wins towards the end whether the dominating attitude of the rich or the loving son’s consideration towards his mother as Kailash blows the radio with his ploughing staff at Baua Jha’s fields, when he notices the approach of his mother to that place, and imagining her grief over losing the radio to Baua Jha. Kailash destroys the radio to save his mother from feeling sorrow, and also making Baua Jha to understand how his identity can never be destroyed. Once the radio doesn’t belong to him, he has no attachment to that radio. He knows that, his mother is caught with the still existed attachment to the radio. His act of damaging the attachment to the object, philosophically marks his resistance to the unequal society.

All these stories can be understood as contemplations on the threats to equality. They have national interest. These three stories are set in the village environment, to stress on the interrelation between caste practises and village life. While the narrator in “The Rainbow” is neutral regarding the caste system and doesn’t resist against injustice before his eyes, Jawahar in “Anticurrent” loses his fear towards the upper casts and challenge them, and in “Kailash Mandal's Philips Radio” Kailash, even after being defeated by Baua Jha, mechanizes his calculative plot as a mark of his agitation. While “The Rainbow” presents political underpinnings and victimization of people of both groups, “Anticurrent” and “Kailash Mandal's Philips Radio” present personal struggle of lower casts. While violence involving several people marks “The Rainbow”, “Anticurrent” and “Kailash Mandal's Philips Radio” violence generated by speaking, and silencing the other through fear are explicated. These stories, enriched by blended metaphors, aiming for new society, retain the mysterious and unattainable contours of Maithili literature.

Works cited

Choudhary, Prabhas Kumar. “The Rainbow”. Trans. Rajanand Jha. Contemporary Maithili Short Stories. ED. Thakur, Murari Madhusudan. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 2005. Print.

Jha, Ashok Kumar. “Anticurrent”. Trans. Sanjiv Kumar Choudhary. Contemporary Maithili Short Stories. ED. Thakur, Murari Madhusudan. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 2005. Print.

Jha, Ramesh. “Kailash Mandal's Philips Radio”. Trans. Bhairatveshwar Jha. Contemporary Maithili Short Stories. ED. Thakur, Murari Madhusudan. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 2005. Print.

Rege. Sharmila. Writing Caste/Writing Gender: Narrating Dalit Women's Testimonies. New Delhi: Zubaan books, 2013. E-book.

Velassery, Sebastian. And Patra, Reena. Caste Identities and The Ideology of Exclusion: A Post-Script on the Humanization of Indian Social Life. California: Brown Walker Press, 2018. Print.