Mahavidyas. Image credit - Rudrasena Foundation

Tantra developed as a parallel tradition to Vedic in the umbrella of the Hindu religion. The most important constituents of the Hindu religion are devoted to the worship of Vishnu, Siva, Sakti, Ganapati and Surya respectively. Collectively known as the Pancopasana, it had tantric rituals which were with time approved by the Smritis and Puranas. Tantra was primarily a way or means to understand the mysteries of life and universe by laypeople to whom the strict and vigorous existing religious system of the Vedic society, upheld by the Puranas and the severity of the social laws enumerated in the Smriti texts, had no appeal. This accounted for the rise of new cults outlined by people of their own social standing. Tantra rose as a popular way to understand the significance of knowledge in the everyday activities with a deliberate theoretical orientation and that the key to this knowledge of nature is to be found within the body. Later, tantricism seeped into Buddhism, which evolved into sects with its own set of complexities, as well as Jainism.

The word tantra is derived from the sanskrit root tan, meaning to spread and propagate. Tantra became a tradition consisting of popular beliefs, cults and rituals, liberal social ideals, and an ethics and philosophy that gave a meaning to life. This tradition was enriched by many who were basically protestant and liberal thinkers. The main feature of tantra was the revival of primitive beliefs and practices. It abandoned the sophisticated ritualistic way of the Vedic system and had a simpler approach to the personal deity and orientation of life. One of its most stark features was the liberal and respectful attitude towards women and the denial of caste. Women were equally able to participate in all the practices of the cult especially the ones involving metaphysical rites. This brought the cult of mother Goddess, and the fertility rites associated with its original conception, into close relationship with tantra. One of its earliest characteristic was the magical rites with its elaborate techniques which consisted of symbolic representation. Even though tantricism had Vedic influences, it still had very distinct features from Hinduism in general. The most salient was the tantric ritual of Panchamakara which involved rituals with the use of the five elements, Panchatattva viz alcohol, meat, fish, mudra (parched grain) and maithuna (sexual intercourse). This practice was very typical of all the cults of tantric worship. Tantra has flourished at a Pan-Indian level, most notably in eastern parts such as Assam, Bengal, and Orissa and even in Himachal and Kashmir.

In this paper, my focus is on the role of women within the tantric cult and their depiction as independent and powerful beings and the exploration of limitations they still faced. The shakta cult developed as a chief worshipper of various Goddesses and their power of Creation which evolved from the cult of Mother Goddess. The mother cult is the essence of tantricism, it admits God as the Supreme Self. Everything movable and immovable, animate and inanimate, conceivable and inconceivable, evolves out of God. Mother is the God from whom the child is born and the relation between them is a divine one. Just as the whole universe evolves from God, the child evolves in the womb of the mother. The mother cult prescribes the process of sadhana as bhutasuddhi, a tantric rite for purification of matter. Mukhya prana (the five vital airs) works in the formation of both mind and body. The physical process is classified under the names of prana, apana, vyana, udana and samana. The generation, transmission and distribution of vital energy are effected through these five processes. The four mental processes ascribed to the Absolute Being are the names of mana, buddhi, ahamkara and chitta. The mother cult doesn’t ignore the limitation of imperfect comprehensions and the technique of sadhana is for the realisation of monism through dualism.

The shakti sect of tantra practised a particular rite of worship by invoking the feminine divinity and sexual metaphor/act is primary to this. Shakti is the personification of the Mother Goddess. By pronouncing the right formula or mantra in the correct manner or by drawing the correct magical symbol or yatra, a sadhaka persuades the deity to bestow superhuman powers on him and lead him to the higher spiritual state of bliss. After the performance of the routine worship, the sadhaka would indulge in the panchamakaras. Time is always regarded in calculation as the field of play of the Goddess. The tantras consider the time scales and rhythmic systems of the cosmos as an important aspect in sadhana.

In tantra, worship of Devi-shakti is referred to as a vidya. Of the hundreds of tantric practices, the worship of the ten major Devi’s or the Dashamahavidya’s are described in the Todala Tantra. These ten aspects of shakti are the epitome of the entire creation. There are several "levels" at which these Devi’s can be worshipped with the prescribed mantra and yantra. The ten mahavidyas, or Wisdom Goddesses, represent distinct aspects of divinity intent on guiding the spiritual seeker toward liberation. For a knowledge-oriented seeker, these same forms can represent various states of inner awakening along the path to enlightenment. Absolutely allegorical and yogic interpretation was given in the Devi’s representation on the tantric texts which inevitably found its way to its art. They are condemned by some scholars as being vulgar as they had a sense of euphemism and explored the dark interpretation of absolute power.

I chose to study the shakti cult because I felt that there was a need to address the way goddesses were depicted in early Vedic practices, to understand the position of women in these elaborate rituals. Although the mortal beings and godly creatures were not held on the same platform but it does gives us a subtle hint into the psychology of the way women were attributed their place, be it as a consort of a God or as a wife of a layman. The cases of the dashamahavidyas particularly struck me because these goddesses were considered the fiercest forms of Devi and it was the beginning of a new wave. In these shakti manifestations the Devi appears as an individual taking control of her own body and asserting dominance over not only the sadhaka but also her male counterpart, Siva. Yet these appearances are represented in tantric art with emphasis only on various sexual symbolism and iconographies.

The Shakta Cult
Shaktism concentrates on the sole worship of the female power. The shakta-tantric cult had its origin in pre-historic period. During the Vedic period, society being patriarchal, subordinated the female deities. Towards the later Vedic period however, women began to occupy a very important position, in fact a superior position to men, both in the worship of women and worship with women. The concept of goddess took a concrete shape in sculptures and different art forms. Several shakta Upanishads upheld the importance of female principles. According to the shakta Puranas the great goddess created Brahma, Vishnu and Saiva from her own body and then divided herself into three parts to mate with them. From this was created the adhya shakti or primal energy as a result of which life and the universe came into existence.

The tantric maxim is that the body is the epitome of the universe. There is the Female Principle (Prakti) and there is the Male Principle (Purusas), the cosmic union of which is Creation. Prakti, which is the conceiver of earthly matter, is characterized by the forces of the Purunas and is in a constant process of evolution. The male and female principle symbolises the tantric exploration of balance in the world. N.N. Bhattacharyya (1999) says “according to the tantric view the body of the sadhana is the universe which is the abode of the desired (ista) and the goal to be sought (sadhaya). The unfolding of the self-power (atmasakti) is to be brought about by the self-realisation (atmadarsana) which is the aim of sadhana.”

In shaktism, the Female Principle is the conceiver of shakti or power whose existence is justified only because of this individual power. The Male Principle is regarded as a static principle of the repository of shakti. The purpose of the tantric sadhana is the perfect and absolute union of the static male principle and the dynamic female principle. As the human body is considered to be the abode of both these principles, for a tantric aspirant there is nothing apart from the body the functioning of which is considered to belong to the same order as cosmic functioning. According to the tantric belief, the aim of the sadhana is to stretch one's consciousness beyond the conventional and to witness the universe in its entirety. Since it had Vedic origin, tantricism was also rooted in the traditions of yoga and body cult, shamanism, religious eroticism and folk rituals, the representative of which was often women. The emergence of shakta elements are found in the absorption of local female deities from Hinduism. Shaktism proclaims women to be the manifestation of the great goddess. There are many references to female sadhika’s and even gurus. However, the role of women was limited to the ritualistic practices and their status was elated to the constriction of being a “mother”. The chief role of women was to be the ritual partners of the male adepts during their sadhana. The importance of women was reduced to their physical contribution which ultimately indicated their social inferiority.
 

Goddess Tara on funeral pyre. Image credit- Wikipedia.org	Goddess Chinnamasta depicted  in Madhubani folkart. Image Credit- Univ of Columbia, NY	Goddess Dhumvati on crow. Image credit- Wikipedia.org

 

Goddess Bhairavi with severed head. Image Credit-Kheper.net	Goddess Matangi with skull beside her. Image credit - Google Images	Goddess Kali slaying Demons. Image credit - Philadelphia Museum of Art

The shakta Devi in her developed form absorbed with herself innumerable goddesses from different streams associated with the mother goddess cult. In the Devibhagavata we come across many such local deities who were incorporated in the cult and indentified with the supreme being of the shaktas. Popular Hindu goddesses were given relatively higher positions to represent prakriti than the local deities. In tantra, the Dashamahavidyas possessing supreme knowledge are considered the Devi’s important manifestations. The ten forms of the goddess are Kali, Tara, Sorashi, Bhuvaneshwati, Bhairavi, Chhinnamasta, Dhumavati, Bagala, Matangi and Kamala. Next to them, the tantrikas also worship the Sapta-matrika or the seven mothers. All the deities have consorts and respective veeja mantra (single syllable sounds). It is a cult of ecstasy focused on a vision of cosmic sexuality. The cult of yogini is also a very important manifestation that developed within the shakta cult. Yogini’s were seen as demon slayers and over the ages they multiplied into sixty four and gained utmost supremacy. Thus, we witness not only dynamics of gender but also the sublime nature of hierarchy.

Each of the mahavidyas again has many different forms. Iconographically, they are individually shown dominating male deities. We see a striking similarity of the goddesses depicted as a strong headed figure and as a harbinger of good over evil. They take almost a demonized manifestation, their wrath bringing suffering to enemies and destroying evil. These goddesses are both frightening and dangerous. They often threaten social order. In their strong associations with death, violence, pollution and despised marginal social roles, they call into question normative social "goods" such as worldly comfort, security, respect, and honour. The worship of these goddesses suggests that the devotee experiences a refreshing and liberating spirituality in all that is forbidden by established social orders. By subverting, mocking, or rejecting conventional social norms there is a space to identify with the forbidden. This is admired and feared at the same time.

The psychological approach seeking to explore the obscure zone of unconsciousness with the tantric key has resulted in the sexual elements that are so vital to this tradition. This is interpreted as purely symbolic and in shaktism it is represented through the woman’s body, both physically and mentally. Here, the female power is dominant in the harmonious union of the male and female in creating the universe. For the man, the woman is the material object of concentration, a goddess for meditation and a symbolic truth for comprehension. Tantric art often depicts erotic copulatives acrobatics. In accordance with the established norms the shakta cult addresses the problem of bondage and suggests various means of liberation. It was an attitude towards life in which women of the lower caste found a voice to liberate themselves through the worship of goddesses who also liberated themselves from their consort and became the Supreme. The demand for excessive physical involvement also addresses the issue of objectification.

Recurring themes in the portrayal of the Dashamahavidyas
Corpses and cremation grounds has often found its way to be associated with the mahavidyas. Goddess Kali, Tara, Bagala, Matangi and Bhairavi are depicted as standing or sitting on corpses and Kali, Tara are also depicted in cremation grounds along with Chinnamasta and Dhumavati. The Mantramahodadhih is a text that focuses on the mahavidyas and on various occasions references are found of sadhana being practised on a corpse or on a place where corpse has recently been buried. In an essay “Reflections on the Dashamahavidyas” (Kinsley, 2009) it has been cited that “A sadhaka who, sitting on a corpse, performs one lakh (100,000) repetitions of this mantra, his mantra becomes potent and all his cherished desires are soon fulfilled.”  The Mantramahodadhih also describes the komalasana and the vistatrasana. The former uses an aborted foetus or the corpse of a small child and the latter is made of woven grass and is consecrated with the corpse. Another text, the Tantrasara, primarily devoted to the dashamahavidyas, has detailed descriptions of tantric rituals. The techniques of sava sadhana (spiritual endeavour with a corpse) and the cita sadhana (spiritual endeavour on a cremation pyre with a coprse) are not assigned to the worship of a specific goddess but are described as being applicable to several of them.

This needs to be observed closely to study the cult as whole because it reflects the depiction of the goddesses to be associated with a type of spirituality that relies heavily on death imagery. This is most explicit in the case of Kali but corpses and cremation grounds are a central theme while accounting the other mahavidyas too. This imagery was influenced from Hinduism where the idea of renunciation of worldly ascetics and desires were much propagated and accepted. In this context, death imagery and death rituals in tantric shaktism symbolised the decision of renunciation by the devotee to pursue spiritual liberation by giving up the lures of this world. Meditation after death put this desires in a perspective where their attraction can be minimized or subverted altogether. The cremation ground symbolises a ‘forbidden thing’ which the sadhaka must confront in order to glimpse the underlying nature of reality which is that all things no matter how polluted or terrible are purified by the all-encompassing power of shakti. To mediate upon, to mediate in or to live in a cremation ground functions as a spiritual test and the goddess herself is described as assuming terrible forms and putting the male gods to similar test. The tantric sadhaka is tested and the challenge is to be able to perceive the presence of the goddess even in the most gruesome form in polluting objects or places.

Cremation grounds are used in tantric cults in the initiation rites which often involve the symbolic death and rebirth of the initiate to signify the dramatic transformation where people die to one mode of being and are born to another. It is the locale of the greatest human transition, that from life to death. Tantric practices and rituals deliberately seek to contact with this invisible world for a variety of purposes especially for explicit goals like gaining some kind of power from the deities. The rites aim at crossing the barrier between the visible and the invisible worlds by allowing the sadhaka to enter the spiritual world or by enticing the spiritual beings to enter the visible world. In Hinduism the cremation ground is a certain place where all human beings eventually and inevitably make contact with the spirit world as they pass from life to death. It is a place of spirit traffic, of the coming and going from one world to another and corpses are vehicles to transcend into that world. Cremation grounds are believed to be places where such spirit allies are found and corpses are often the actual sources of such spirits. Hence, the importance of the usage of corpses and cremation grounds in the pursuit of seeking the other world becomes understandable. As contacting the spirit world is considered to be dangerous, difficult and terrifying, gaining control of the corpse or the spirit itself are seen as significant.

Skulls and severed head:
Another remarkable feature in the iconography of the mahavidyas is the prevalence of severed heads and skulls. The goddesses wear garlands made of these and are often depicted as holding freshly cut heads in their hands. Skulls also adorn their forehand and hair. Some has dramatic depiction of their own head being severed by themselves. In the Mantramahodadhih, the worship of the mahavidyas prescribes skulls as the seats upon which a sadhana is performed. The significance of this has been interpreted as a sign of offering. This practice is traced to the Hindu practice of decapitating animals for offerings to God’s. There is a section devoted to bali or ‘blood sacrifice’ in the Tantrasara which clearly indicated that the proper method of killing the victim, possibly a human being, is by decapitation. So the severed heads might indicate a sacrificial offering and in the mahavidya’s iconography they are always heads of male. Many such iconographies have been found in sculptures and niches of temple walls.

Skulls and severed heads are a symbolic representation of objects of power containing special qualities in rituals and also as the “seeds” from which all creation proceeds. As a chief body part, the head was the holder of the person’s essential being, without a head a person was without an identity. Another interpretation of the skulls and severed heads lies in the corpses and cremation grounds iconography where the goddesses wear it as ornaments. Here, the representation is of symbolic transformation of two consciousnesses. When the sadhana is performed, these skulls and severed heads might be symbolic of the sadhaka. By a particular goddess’s blessing they have accomplished the spiritual feat. It also signifies both the symbolic death where the mind leaves the body and transits into the other world, becoming a spirit. The peaceful look and satisfaction seen in many iconographies symbolises the successful transcendent of consciousness.

Sexuality and awakening consciousness:
The dominant sexual worship of the mahavidyas is reflected in the implicit and explicit sexual symbolism seen in their iconography and ritual practices. In the dhyana mantras and even in portraits, sexual intercourse of the goddesses is explicitly portrayed. They are described and represented as sexually attractive and beautiful. Their yatras and mandalas or mystic diagrams contain implicit sexual symbolism and the central metaphor is the awakening of the kundalini sakti or serpentine power, residing in the spine which may be interpreted as the arousal of sexual energy. Kundalini may be understood as a force of diffusion and expansion. The higher it goes up in its ascent through the psychic centres the more it acquaints us with all the layers of consciousness. Finally, it touches the universal focal point and invests us with the peace that passes understanding. This may be seen as a metaphor of sexual activity. The panchatattva ritual is also more central in the worship of the mahavidyas as sexual intercourse is the culminating act here. The centrality of the sexual imagery in the worship of the mahavidyas lies in tantric philosophy which reflects the vision of reality as the dynamic tension between the two great principles, Siva and Shakti. The attainment of cosmic power through their union is a manifestation of the dynamic, energetic, creative and harmonious interaction of the couple.

In tantra, the yantras and the mandalas suffuse the sexual imagery associated with all of the mahavidyas. “The dominant forms of the yatra- the triangle and the lotus- both have sexual connotations. The triangle, particularly when it is pointing downward, is symbolic of the vulva. A triangle pointing upwards is held to represent the phallus. When the two are superimposed on each other, as in most of the yantras representing the individual mahavidya, they denote sexual union. The lotus also has implicit sexual implicit sexual connotation. It is often a symbol of generation, that from which all creation proceeds or that in which all creation is contained. As it opens and blossoms the cosmos emerges. In this sense, the lotus represents the womb from which the world is born and may be associated with the womb or sexual organ of shakti, from whom creation emerges, and in whom it is contained” (Kinsley, 2009). The yantras representing the dashamahavidyas were said to be charged with groups of powers (male and female deities) which the sadhaka used to invoke during the sadhana. In many of the mahavidya yantras, the inner petals of a lotus are charged with different forms of the god and goddess associated with sexual vitality and desire. In representing the goddess and the cosmos that she embodies, the yantra again expresses the idea that reality in its basic form is sexually charged. The fifth element, maithuna, involves the act of sex between the sadhaka and his shakti. This imagery is quite frequent in tantric text and art and asserts that sexual intercourse leads to intense spiritual experience to the point of ecstasy. A woman is reduced to only her physical prowess.

The Goddesses in Tantric Architecture & Art
In “The tantric way” (Mookerjee and Khanna, 1977) it has been described “the art that has evolved out of tantrism reveals an abundant variety of forms, reflections of tone and colour, graphic patterns, powerful symbols with persona and universal significance. It is specifically intended to convey a knowledge evoking a higher level of perception, and taps dormant sources of our awareness. Apart from aesthetics value, its real significance lies in its content, the philosophies of life it unravels, the world view it represents.” In this sense, tantra art is visual metaphysics.

In Orissa, temple architecture has prominent sexual themes. In Puri, the celebrated seat of Lord Jagannath, who is mentioned in the Tantra texts as the subordinate consort of the goddess Bhairavi, influences of tantric rites are seen in daily worship practices. The Hansesvari temple in Bengal also architecturally represents the symbolic union of Siva and Shakti. The minarets have tantric iconography all over it.  In the garbhagriha’s (inner sanctum) the idol of the goddess is usually placed in the middle as the centre of creation.

The tantric deities, the mahavidyas are mostly worshipped in image form and many paintings are found ranging from the Pahari style to Rajasthan School’s depicting the goddesses in their fiercest form. In Bengal and Assam depiction of the goddesses continues in contemporary art as the shakta cult is most prevalent there. These artworks appear to be composed in a surreal reverie. While naturalism and intuition are blended perfectly in a single impulse, their wrathful and destructive depiction has a striking effect and transports the spectator to a supernatural world. From an aesthetic point of view, they suggest a flight from reality and an awareness of a profoundly different world: the poignant, restless and aggressive.

Conclusion

The tantras glorify shakti in all her aspects, the creative, the preservative and destructive ones in the entire universe. The goddess is the protector of the devotees and she fights the asuras- symbolic of darkness and ignorance- and illuminates their path with goodness. Each manifestation of the Devi is a dominant individual over her consort. The practice of the sadhana is sexually energised and the aspirant aims to achieve enlightenment through this. Allegorical interpretation was given to the way the Devi’s were represented in the early tantric texts which was inevitably represented in art. They were regarded as unconventional as they had a sense of euphemism and explored the dark interpretation of absolute power. However, these practices or sadhana’s done to reach into the shakti or the primal energy of the deity was only used as a mean to help the men’s own ambitious journey. This is an interpretation of gender disparity. The goddesses were invoked as they were regarded as having supernatural power and were the ultimate answer for a win over “evil forces”. An advanced level sadhaka desired to tap into this power and acknowledge them.

During the early period, women were a subordinated group. Tantricism not only accepted women but also embraced them as equal partners in practices. In the worship of the feminine power, the power of creation, the miracle of birth, women evidently played a significant role. The women however are not the recipient of the “absolute power”.  This is reserved for the Goddesses only. The dashamahavidays are depicted in fierce forms as a symbolic representation of being strong and independent. Tantra broke free from conservative vedic ideologies and began to see women as a vessel of great potential and shakti was given her own place, an all-capable, all-enduring, all-powerful Goddess.

Works Cited

Bandyopadhay, Pranab. The goddess of Tantra. Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 2002.
Bhattacharya, Narendra Nath. History of the Tantric Religion. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors, 1999.
Khanna, Ajit Mookerjee & Madhu. The Tantric Way: Art, Science, Ritual . New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd, 1977.
Kinsley, David R. “Corpses, Severed Heads and Sex: Reflections on Dashamahavidyas.” Breaking Boundaries with the Goddess: New Directions in the Study of Saktism. Ed. Cynthia Ann Humes and Rachel Fell McDermott. New Delhi: Manohar Pubishers & Distributors, 2009. 137- 160.