Snow-covered branches on a winter morning. Photo by Mohammad Zahid

 

Abstract

From the enigmatic vākhs of Lall Dyad to the sublime shruks of Nund Rīshī, and the poetry of 18th and 19th-century mystics, religious poetry in the Kashmiri language has captivated hearts and minds for centuries. This poetry presents a tapestry woven from diverse religio-cultural backgrounds, serving as an awe-inspiring medium for thoughtful inquiry, spiritual enlightenment, and artistic expression while remaining distinct from a syncretic model. This paper provides a concise historical overview of mystical poetry in Kashmiri, and with a focus on some Kashmiri works, it then explores how contemporary scholars of Kashmiri language and literature have contributed to the preservation of this spiritual heritage. It highlights key preservation efforts such as compilation, textual criticism, and interpretation, underscoring their importance for future generations. Additionally, it emphasises the lasting influence of the said poetry on contemporary Kashmiri literature, affirming its continued relevance in shaping modern literary discourse. By connecting historical and contemporary voices, this paper highlights the timeless appeal and legacy of Kashmiri mystical verses.

Brief History and Key Themes

Throughout history, humankind has endeavoured to observe, experiment, categorise, understand and explain phenomena through systematic and analytic assessment. This has significantly resulted in the development, practical application and proliferation of theories and facts, along with vast experience and understanding of the world. Articulating eloquently, Humza Yusuf states that humankind stands apart from other creatures and unlike any other species, human beings possess the unique capacity to acquire, preserve, and transmit knowledge. He adds that while animals have instinctual knowledge and display remarkable intelligence and complex behaviours, they do not engage in philosophical inquiries about the meaning and purpose of life or transmit complex religio-cultural practices to their offspring. The ability to reason and accumulate knowledge thus distinguishes humans from animals.

The human quest to expand knowledge is driven and motivated by a continuous search of the known and unknown. However, this pursuit is inevitably constrained by limitations. The physical world presents obstacles and total reliance on logic, scientific method, and rationality has drawbacks. These tools of exploration, experimentation and analysis, though indispensable, only offer a partial and often inadequate picture of reality. The human curiosity to know, thus, ventures beyond the confines imposed by mere theoretical and empirical. This natural disposition of inquisitiveness has propelled an enduring quest in humans to know and experience Reality beyond the reach of reason and logic, a pursuit that lies at the heart of a spiritual journey.

Human beings, composed of soul, mind and body, possess a Divinely bestowed capacity for introspection, reflection, and love, transcending the purely rational. Among these qualities of human experience, love in its highest and most intense form is primary nature (fiṭrah) and yearning for the Ultimate Reality. This Reality in its essence is transcendent, beyond the human mind and rationality, yet not entirely unknowable through heartfelt reflection and contemplation. Being the source of all existence, it is described in various ways by prophets, mystics and other enlightened individuals. Through their genuine spiritual insights and experiences, recorded in poems, writings, sayings, and scriptures, these religious figures have bequeathed us a rich body of literature. This legacy demonstrates that mysticism is not opposed to religion, but rather constitutes an indispensable dimension within its multidimensional and multifaceted structure. Its core tenet lies in the emphasis on direct knowledge and experience of the Divine – a heartfelt communion with the Transcendent Reality that underlies all appearances. It is for this reason that the teachings and transformative power of many mystics emerged from their profound experience of the Ultimate Reality or their journey on the sacred path.

The interplay between spiritual experience and its vibrant expression—mostly poetic—has significantly shaped the development of religions worldwide. This relationship is notably visible in the rich literary history of Kashmir. The history of Kashmiri literature is deeply interwoven with the valley’s changing religious and cultural landscapes. Distinctly expressed through poetry, it reflects the substantial influence of religious experience on the artistic expression of the region.

The precise origins of literature in the Kashmiri language remain a subject of scholarly debate, with no definitive consensus on its inception. Although the earliest available records of literature in Kashmiri, such as chumi-padas and vākhs, date back many centuries, they do not represent the beginning of literary expression in the region. The existence of a rich oral tradition suggests that literary production in Kashmiri predates extant works. The enduring presence of Kashmiri folksongs, folktales and proverbs provides evidence of literary tradition(s) among the region’s earliest inhabitants. These traditions predate the arrival and subsequent influence of Buddhist and Indo-Aryan traditions and cultures that have been subsumed under the umbrella of Hinduism.

Avtaar Kishan Rahbar notes that for a considerable period, scholarly consensus held that the vākhs of 14th-century mystic poetess, Lall Dyad (also referred to as Lal Ded), constituted the earliest extant work in Kashmiri literature. However, the subsequent discovery of the Mahānay Prakāsh text challenged this assumption, indicating the existence of literary works in Kashmiri before Lall’s time. The Mahānay Prakāsh, an esoteric text, is attributed to Shitī Kanth, a Shaivite mystic figure believed to have lived in the 13th century. This work, however, provides limited insight into the development of Kashmiri as a vehicle of artistic expression, due in part to its extensive use of Sanskrit language. Lall’s vākhs, on the other hand, constitute one of the earliest concrete examples of an orally transmitted body of literature in Kashmiri and imply a richer literary tradition than this text may indicate. In her poetry, Lall Dyad emphasises the spiritual journey of overcoming the pull and influences of the lower self and attaining God-consciousness through love, devotion, and a life imbued with constant awareness of the Divine presence.

Following Lall Dyad, the composition and oral transmission of mystical poetry in Kashmiri continued uninterrupted. In the 15th century, Nund Rīshī (Shaykh Nūr-ud-Dīn), the celebrated Muslim mystic, made significant contributions to Kashmiri literature through the composition of poetic aphorisms. This body of work, known as shruk literature, however, suggests a tradition extending beyond Nund Rīshī, encompassing the contributions of some of his disciples and their descendants. Similar to Lall vākhs, shruks possess a didactic nature. Through these concise poetic verses, the Muslim Rīshīs played an essential role in introducing and propagating key themes of Taṣawwuf (Islamic science of spirituality) in the Kashmiri language, thereby significantly enriching both its literary and spiritual heritage.

While the Mahānay Prakāsh may have preceded the said vākh and shruk literature, the latter are generally considered to exemplify the pinnacle of literary accomplishment in the Kashmiri language. In the ensuing years, both these poetic expressions, alongside folk literature, were transmitted orally across generations, subject to changes and additions over time. At times, verses originally authored by Nund Rīshī were mistakenly ascribed to Lall Dyad, and vice versa, resulting in a mix-up of their poetic legacies.

By the 15th century, with the widespread acceptance of Islam by the populace, Kashmir witnessed a marked transformation. The simultaneous establishment of Muslim rule resulted in Persian becoming the official language, receiving patronage for centuries. As Muslim culture, particularly Central Asian, permeated Kashmir’s social fabric, it influenced its art, literature, and religious practices. The literary minds of Kashmir began to incorporate themes drawn from the Persio-Arabic intellectual tradition, reflecting the deeper religio-cultural change that had taken place by this time. This nurtured the production of a diverse body of literature, with contributions from both Muslim and non-Muslim intellectuals and artists. Under this influence, the region fostered a flourishing intellectual environment that produced eminent intellectuals like Shrivarā Pandit and Ghanī Kashmiri. Drawing inspiration from Persio-Arabic culture, they explored themes of mysticism, Divine love, ethical teachings, moral values, social justice, valour, and metaphysical reflections. By bringing together these influences with local traditions, they enriched the region’s literary and cultural heritage.

In contrast, the Kashmiri language, lacking official support, continued to flourish as the lingua franca of the populace. As a result, both the language and its resulting literature were preserved by the common people primarily through oral transmission and cultural practices within the Kashmiri community. Despite the proficiency of many Kashmiris in Persian, a notable number preferred to compose in the native Kashmiri. Distinguished theological minds such as Bābā Nasīb-ud-Dīn Ghāzī, Ḥabībullah Nowshahrī, and Sāhib Kaul played a crucial role in the preservation of regional literature, while also contributing significantly to its development. Celebrated literary icons like Ḥabba Khātūn, Maḥmūd Gāemī, Rasūl Mīr, Parmānand (Pandit Nand Rām), Prakāsh Rām, S‘adullāh Shāhābādī and Mīr Abdullāh Bahaqī, who flourished between the 16thand 19th centuries, also made a pivotal contribution in this endeavour. Furthermore, the literary landscape of the valley was enriched by the contributions of many unlettered mystic poets, particularly from the 19th century. Their poetry, often transmitted through oral traditions, was preserved through performances by singers in Ṣūfīsamā meḥfils (musical assemblies) and diligently recorded by their followers, both independently and occasionally under their guidance.

Contemporary Scholarship on Kashmiri Mystical Poetry

The lasting legacy of literature in the Kashmiri language, evident in the contributions of numerous religious and literary figures, stands as a testament to its resilience despite receiving limited official support. However, scholarly engagement with Kashmiri mystical poetry, particularly in terms of its compilation, interpretation and textual analysis, remained limited until the early part of the 20th century. It was during this period that intellectuals like Abdul Ahad Azad started to make a substantial impact, pioneering the study of Kashmiri language and literature.

Azad, a renowned 20th-century Kashmiri poet, literary critic, and historian played a vital role in preserving Kashmiri poetry through his extensive contributions and scholarly efforts. His primary motivation stemmed from a deep-seated love for his mother tongue and an in-depth appreciation of its rich cultural heritage. Azad recognised the imminent threat to Kashmiri poetry due to its waning influence in the lives of people and the lack of formal support. To address this, he undertook a project to compile and document the works of both past and contemporary Kashmiri poets, thereby ensuring their preservation for the coming generations. The outcome of this endeavour was the three-volume work, Kashmiri Zabān aur Shā‘irī. This magnum opus exemplifies his tireless efforts in this regard, offering a record of Kashmiri poetry from the bygone ages to his time. Despite its invaluable contribution to the field, Azad’s Kashmiri Zabān aur Shā‘irī has certain limitations, such as an incomplete collection of the poets’ works he references, often presenting only selected verses instead of comprehensive anthologies. Having passed away at a young, his collection of poetry was compiled posthumously by Prem Nath Ganjoo, under the title Kulliyāt-i Āzād.

Azad’s efforts in documenting and preserving Kashmiri poetry motivated a new generation of scholars, especially Amin Kamil. A close companion and intellectual successor to Azad, Kamil continued the invaluable work of compiling and analysing the works of Kashmiri poets, particularly mystics. Kamil was a versatile literary personality, excelling as a poet, essayist, short story writer, literary critic, and editor. His major contributions to the preservation of Kashmiri poetry encompass the compilation of several notable works: Ṣūfī Shā‘ir, a three-volume anthology of Ṣūfī poetry; Nūr Nāmah, a collection of shruk poems; Kuliyāt-i Ḥabba Khātūn, a collection of poems by Ḥabba Khātūn; and Lōlh Nagmih, an anthology of Kashmiri songs. In addition to these collections, Kamil authored Rūhānī Falsafah, a collection of articles exploring themes of spirituality and the impact of various spiritual currents on the mystics of Kashmir. Nundh Ryosh, Kaeshir Zabān ti Adab, and Soan Adab are other notable edited works by him, giving valuable insights into the history and growth of the Kashmiri language and literature. His academic contributions, especially in the domain of mystical poetry, greatly enhanced the understanding and appreciation of Kashmiri literary heritage. Kamil’s impact on Kashmiri literature extends beyond his compilations and editorial endeavours. He produced an impressive body of novel content in Kashmiri, including poetry, essays, and short stories. For instance, in his acclaimed short story collection, Katth-i-Manz-Kath, he eloquently describes his creative process, explaining how he transformed ideas that did not readily lend themselves to poetic expression into compelling narratives. He effectively utilised humour and satire as powerful tools for social commentary and critique. Even with his significant contributions to the preservation of mystical poetry in Kashmiri, especially through his three-volume work, Ṣūfī Shā‘ir, certain drawbacks are noticeable. For example, while Kamil, unlike Azad, presents complete poems of the mystics he features, the selection often remains selective, bringing forth only a limited number of each mystic’s oeuvre. Moreover, his discussions on Kashmir Shaivism, Vedānta, and Taṣawwuf, when juxtaposed with an in-depth analysis of mystical poetry, occasionally reveal shortcomings that a student of religious studies could readily identify.

Since the mid-twentieth century, the scholarly engagement with mystical poetry in Kashmiri has extensively increased, partly inspired by its deep spiritual insights and rich cultural heritage. Rooted in specific religious and cultural traditions, Kashmiri mystical poetry is more and more being translated, discussed, analysed, and circulated by contemporary scholars to ensure its accessibility to a wider audience. These efforts span across a range of disciplines, including comparative religion, literary studies, and cultural history. This endeavour has been considerably enriched by the contributions of many scholars and writers. Most of these literary minds have been affiliated with prominent institutions such as the University of Kashmir, the Sahitya Akademi and the Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages, enriching the academic landscape with their research and teaching.

Through thought-provoking essays on textual criticism and critical analysis of Kashmiri literature, modern academic studies provide valuable insights into the nuances of the language and the deeper spiritual and philosophical dimensions of the poetry. By comprehensively examining and interpreting Kashmiri poetic texts, these scholars have significantly advanced the understanding of Kashmiri literature and inspired a new generation to delve deeper into its rich and multifaceted world. Many of these critical and insightful essays on textual analysis of Kashmiri mystical poetry can be found in the journal Anhār, published by the Department of Kashmiri at the University of Kashmir. It is important to note that mystical poetry in Kashmiri has not only been a subject of analysis but also a valuable resource, a veritable mine of knowledge, upon which many scholars have based their research. It demonstrates the enduring richness of this literary tradition and ensures its continued relevance as a source for ongoing research. This is evident, for example, in the works of scholars like Shad Ramzan. Since we are discussing contemporary scholarly voices in the field of Kashmiri mystical poetry, two of his notable works deserve attention: Ath Zulmātas Lal Kyā Shi Tay and Sahal Chhā Māni Bōzun. Remarkably, the titles of both these books are derived from the poetry of the famous mystics Wahāb Khār and Shams Faqīr, highlighting the deep influence that these mystics continue to exert on contemporary scholarship. These works are a collection of essays that reflect Ramzan’s insightful analysis and interpretation of Kashmiri literature. While delving into the various aspects of Kashmiri language, literature, and folklore, a distinct focus is devoted to mystical poetry. With these contributions, he not only enriched the field of Kashmiri literary studies but also paved the way for further exploration and research.

Last word

Mystical poetry in the Kashmiri language merits preservation due to its impactful role in conveying theological doctrines, moral teachings, and spiritual concepts to diverse audiences, particularly the illiterate. It served as a key medium for exploring and expressing personal faith and spiritual journey. These poems frequently made use of familiar narratives and allegorical tales to convey complex spiritual concepts, making religious doctrine accessible and understandable to the common people. Through the use of vivid imagery and rich symbolism, these works were able to inspire devotion and reinforce the religious values central to the social and cultural fabric of any tradition-based society. This genre provides a means for individuals to reflect on their relationship with the Divine while contributing to a rich tradition of mystical literature that has influenced subsequent generations. It is one of the reasons that it has remained an integral part of Kashmiri life and culture and is continuously being discussed and celebrated throughout the ages. The works of mystic poets have influenced generations, fostering a unique cultural and spiritual heritage that continues to resonate globally, making its preservation essential for both scholarly and cultural continuity. The need to preserve mystical poetry in Kashmiri arises not only from its profound spiritual and aesthetic value but also from its key role in safeguarding the Kashmiri language, ensuring its continued vitality and transmission of cultural heritage across generations.

Despite significant contemporary scholarly contributions, preserving mystical poetry faces both challenges and opportunities. One of the challenges lies in capturing the nuanced linguistic, cultural, and spiritual essence of these works during translation, which often risks losing the depth and richness of the original texts. Misinterpretations of spiritual concepts, arising from inadequate contextual knowledge, further complicate efforts to convey their true meaning. Additionally, resource constraints, including the financial and institutional support required for digitisation, critical editions, and academic events, limit the scope of preservation efforts. However, opportunities abound in leveraging modern tools and platforms. Digital archives and computational tools in the digital humanities offer innovative ways to systematically preserve, analyse, and share Kashmiri mystical poetry. Academic research, critical editions, and interdisciplinary studies continue to expand understanding and appreciation of these works. Public workshops, artistic adaptations, and performances introduce these timeless poems to new audiences, fostering engagement across cultures and generations. Collaborative efforts between scholars and local communities help ensure that these mystical traditions remain rooted in their original cultural contexts while resonating with a global audience, making their preservation both dynamic and enduring.

Notes and Works Cited

1. Yusuf, Hamza. “Foreword.” Being Muslim: A Practical Guide, by Asad Tarsin, White Cloud Press, 2019, p. iii.

2. Kanu, Macaulay A. “The Limitations of Science: A Philosophical Critique of Scientific Method.” IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), vol. 20, no. 7, ver. I, July 2015, p. 81

3. Rescher, Nicolas. Limits of Science. University of Pittsburgh Press, 1999; Whitehead, Alfred North. Science and the Modern World. Free Press, 1967.

4. Though these religious figures speak of the same Reality, however, their experiences and understandings differ completely.

5. The institution of religion exhibits multiple dimensions, including experiential, doctrinal, ritual, aesthetic, legal and social aspects. While all dimensions are significant, religious experience constitutes the core of religion.

6. Shauq, Shafi. “Kashmiri Language: Origin and Development.” Approaches to Kashmir Studies, edited by M.H. Zaffar and Gulshan Majeed, Gulshan Books, 2011, p. 224.

7. For Kashmiri folklore, folksongs, tales and proverbs, see:Aatash, Ghulam Nabi. Kaeshur Folklore, Muhammad Yusuf Mir Darul Kitabat, Pampore, 2017; Giri, Tak Zeena. Kaeshir-i LukihKathih, Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art Culture and Languages, 1972; Saqi, Moti Lal. Kaeshir Lukih Baeth, Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art Culture and Languages, 1967; Knowles, James Hinton. Folk-Tales of Kashmir. K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., 1893.

8. Another notable poet who predates Lall Dyad is Sidh Shrī Kanth (Sidh Mōl). It is possible that Sidh Mōl was also Lall Dyad’s guru (teacher). See Rahbar, Avtaar Kishan. Kaeshri Adbich Tārīkh. Watan Publishing House, 1965. pp. 19, 134& 142.

9. Rashid, Majrooh. Persian Prosody and Kashmiri Poetry, in The ‘Alamdār, Vol. XVII (2022), Shaikh-ul Aalam Centre for Multidisciplinary Studies, University of Kashmir, p. 97.

10. Azad, Abdul Ahad. Kashmiri Zuban Aur Shairi. 3 vols. J&K Academy of Art, Culture and Languages, 1982.

11. Azad, Abdul Ahad. Kulliyāt-i Āzād. Edited by Prem Nath Ganjoo. Jammu and Kashmir Academy of Art, Culture and Languages, 1966.

12. Due to the long list of authors and intellectuals, a comprehensive discussion of each individual is beyond the scope of this paper. However, it is important to acknowledge some prominent figures who, through their unique contributions, have significantly advanced the study and preservation of Kashmiri mystical literature. Expanding on the seminal contributions of Abdul Ahad Azad and Amin Kamil, these include: Jayalal Kaul, Zinda Kaul, Moti Lal Saqi, Shamsuddin Ahmad, Avtaar Kishan Rahbar, Chaman Lal Chaman, Pandit Nandram, Rahman Rahi, Marghoob Banihali, Bashir Akhtar, S.S. Toshkhani, Qazi Ẓahoor, Ghulam Nabi Gowhar, Afaq Aziz, Shad Ramzan, Naji Munawwar, Shafi Shauq, Mahfooza Jan, Ghulam Muhammad Shad, and Aziz Hajini.

13. Ramzan, Shad. Ath Zulmātas Lal Kyā Shi Tay. Kitab Ghar, 2009; Sahal Chhā Māni Bōzun, Kitab Ghar, 2008.