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Sukrita Paul Kumar , Rekha Sethi
The Changing Dynamics of Values - Modern Hindi and Urdu Literatures
Sukrita Paul Kumar & Rekha Sethi

Swang, considered the most ancient folk theatre form of India. is popular in Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh. Swang incorporates suitable theatrics and mimicry (or naqal) accompanied by song and dialogue. It is dialogue oriented. Religious stories and folk tales are enacted by a group of ten or twelve persons in an open area or an open-air theatre surrounded by the audience.
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All great literature is not just a witness to its contemporary present, it weaves in the vast expanse of the time gone by, intertwining the narratives of the past, relocating the web into the present and mapping the future. All creative writers live on two planes of Time—one that reflects the turbulence and the restorations of the time they live in, and the other that bears the resonance of the time they strive to recreate within their creation. The common thread between the two is the value system they adhere to or sustain even while facing the challenges of cataclysmic collapse. Values may be constant but with changing times the values chosen in a context too change. To understand the ongoing literary streams in Hindi and Urdu in the present times, it is important to turn towards the commencement of the modern period.

Post 1947, while there was the euphoria of freedom from the British, there was the apocalyptic experience of the division of the subcontinent that led to a major shift in the experiential sensibilities of people. This accounts for the powerful nudge for the creation of a large body of Partition literature in Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi and Bangla. Many writers found themselves at a point of both hope as well as dismay. Qurratulain Hyder, Abdullah Hussein, Yashpal, Bhisham Sahni, Krishna Sobti, Kamleshwar and others wrote epic novels in Urdu and Hindi that captured the humane aspect within the gruesome riots during partition. Anguished by the pain, suffering and the incomprehensible absurdity of violence, the writers produced narratives that explored the truth of human predicament at various levels of consciousness. Going beyond politics and history, the writer was gripped by the idea of creating moments of compassion and empathy and stressed on human bonding rather than communal divisions. The immediate delineation of the horrors of violence came through the short stories of the well-known Urdu writer Manto, which too evoked emotions of horror, as if to denounce the rupture of faith in the humanitarian aspect of living. Amongst others, Krishan Chander, Rajinder Singh Bedi, Sardar Jafri, Firaq Gorakhpuri in Urdu and writers such as Jainendra Kumar, Agyeya and others in Hindi, produced narratives and poetry that celebrated democratic ideals alongside the exploration of individual consciousness.

Qurraitulain Hyder
Wikipedia
Joginder Paul
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Bhisham Sahni
Wikipedia
Krishna Sobti
Wikipedia
Kamleshwar
Youtube
Manto
Bookish Santa
Firaq Gorakhpuri
Amar Ujala
Rajinder S Bedi
Rekhta
Sardar Jafri
Youtube
Agyeya
Kavitakosh
Nirmal Verma
Youtube

Soon after the cultural crisis—as it were—, modernism and progressivism emerged as strong literary movements. While modernism encouraged formal experimentation and a focus on the individual self, progressive literature concerned itself with issues of social justice, reforms and the society. Both came together into a resurgence of creative spirit demonstrated in the evolving of Nayi Kahani in Hindi and Naya Afsana in Urdu. The striving for equality, liberty and progressive commitments became more and more visible. As for the ushering in of Nayi Kavita, Agyeya played a vital role in redefining tradition and the individual. Muktibodh, the Hindi poet, was a significant progressive voice who redefined aesthetics that incorporated the persuasions of equality and the disempowerment of the oppressor.

But then, the Sixties saw another turning point in the socio-political history of the country. The new democratic setup of an independent Nation seems to have been cracked down by selfish political manoeuvres, endless red tapism, unjust and exploitative social order along with the wars fought across borders of China and Pakistan. There was a strong feeling of disillusionment and disenchantment, which was reflected in the Hindi-Urdu literature of that time. The writers chose to delineate and capture the changing realities through an intensely philosophic and psychological probing into human existence and its place in the universe. Western philosophic movements too greatly impacted the litterateur in both Hindi and Urdu around this time. Tradition and mythology were redefined and re-interpretated, story after story. In Hindi, a new form of poetic-drama evolved at this time. Dharamvir Bharti’s Andha Yug, Naresh Mehta’s Ek Kanth Vishpayi and Sanshay ki ek Raat among others demonstrated a heightened questioning of the values upheld till then. In Urdu writers such as Surendra Prakash, Joginder Paul, Balraj Manra, an existential angst was articulated in their short fiction that demanded a redressal through an assertion of human values that spoke for the cementing of the rupture between the alienated self and the ‘other.’ Ismat Chughtai’s short fiction boldly projected the need for gender equality.

The literary criticism of this era was trying to evolve an understanding of the different kinds of literary constructs being presented by the writer. Namwar Singh, Devi Shankar Awasthi, Vijay Narain Dev Sahi in Hindi and in Urdu, Al Ahmed Saroor, Shams ur Rehman Farooqui, Gopi Chand Narang, Wahab Ashrafi, Qamar Rais, Nizam Siddique, Syed Ehtesham Husain and other critics grappled with the defining of literary movements of modernism, postmodernism, progressivism etc. They were trying to redefine literary paradigms and making place for the dynamics of new aesthetics that upheld ethical consciousness as well. Mohammad Hasan the well-known critic published a play on the Emergency: Zahaak.  The progressive Marxist ideals governed the literary choices of some of them. However, the whole exercise was directed at reorienting tradition and expanding the horizon of literature for emancipation and liberation.

Dharamvir Bharti
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Ismat Chugtai
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Kunwar Narain
Kavitakosh
Manu Bhandari
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Mohan Rakesh
Sahityakalp
Jeelani Bano
Goodreads

Writers such as Rattan Singh, Ram Lal, Jeelani Bano, Mohan Rakesh, Kamleshwar, Joginder Paul, Phanishwarnath Renu and Krishna Sobti in Hindi and Urdu continued to write stories, through the century, that dealt with communal harmony, love, human relationships, reflecting concern for class distinctions and an acute awareness about releasing the pressures of modern life. People’s language, be it a ‘dialect,’ began to be accepted as the language for literary expression and the orthodoxy regarding “purity” of Hindi or Urdu language was gradually broken. Literary movements such as Akavita, Akahani flourished through the likes of Rajkamal Chaudhari and Jagdish Chaturvedi among others. A despair and disillusionment followed and what emerged may be termed as ‘modern temper’ tinged with some cynicism.

A strong philosophic strain in Hindi in the writings of Nirmal Verma, Dharamvir Bharti, Kunwar Narain was evidenced at this time. Some writers looked at a cosmos within the self and stressed on the need to look inward to explore larger truths. Syed Mahmood Khundmiri, Nida Fazli and Shahriyar amongst others carried forward the sophisticated Urdu poetics and wrote passionately in tune with the times. Dhumil, Nagarjun, Sarveshwar Dayal Saxena, Raghuvir Sahai in Hindi had a more socialist stance. They were continuously engaged with the plight of an ordinary citizen in a hierarchic democratic set up. Safeguarding the dignity of an individual became a very important value for both Hindi as well as Urdu writers.        

This was the period which also saw the rise of women writers with their assertion of female identity. Krishna Sobti and Qurratulain Haider presented diverse women characters and highlighted various aspects of women’s lives including the issues of female sexuality and desire. Hindi-Urdu women writers such as Mannu Bhandari, Usha Priyamvada, Sajida Zaidi and Zahida Zaidi largely portrayed the struggles of educated middle class women, questioning patriarchy. Later, Mridula Garg, Chitra Mudgal, Mamta Kalia, Raji Seth, Nasira Sharma in Hindi and in Urdu Tarannum Riyaz, Nigar Azeem, Sarvat Khan among others, challenged gender stereotypes in various ways.

The focus on the man in the street and questions of class and equality emerged prominently in Hindi in the works of writers such as Kedarnath Aggarwal, Kedarnath Singh and later, Arun Kamal, Rajesh Joshi, Mangalesh Dabral among others. In Urdu, Paigham Affaki, Ghazanfar and Khalid Javed contributed immensely in bringing the attention of the reader to the underdog in the society and a deep humanism resonates in their works. Musharraf Alam Zauki’s novel Bayaan carries a statement on the demolition of Babri Masjid, a very sensitive issue amongst the Muslim community. Also, some of his work is especially concerned with the living conditions of the community. Shafaq Sopori’s Firing Range Aur Kashmir 1990 is yet another work that raises sensitivity regarding the sensitive issues about the people in Kashmir. The minority community and their destiny get the attention through such literary output in Urdu. Freedom of expression gets realized and awareness enhanced through touching fiction.  Qamar Jamali, Sadika Nawab Sehr, Ashok Vajpeyi, Leeladhar Mandloi and Leeladhar Jagudi along with many more in both languages have made a significant presence in raising awareness in humanistic concerns, social issues and inter-community conversations.

However, till the contemporary times, ‘conflict’ has remained central in literature—conflict within the self, conflict between emotion and intellect, conflict between character and social reality, the incessant conflict between the individual and the social order—and this came to be reflected in different ways across genres. Despite a significant measure of euro-centrism, the writer in Hindi and Urdu engaged with indigenous literary traditions and totally dismissed a parochial outlook in depicting reality by deploying the form suitable to the content, fearless in defying convention. The value of freedom of making choices in creative writing became emphatic. Nirmal Verma’s essays on “In Search of Truth” are pertinent in this regard. The writer’s commitment had to be on the truth perceived by him/her. Whether by employing postmodern narrative style or the realistic mode of writing, the writer exercised freedom of expression, a value highly cherished and discussed in the times.

Technology and media revolutionized global economy and impacted the lives of ordinary men and women in more ways than one. Hyper reality was more overbearing than reality itself. Uday Prakash in his novellas such as Mohandas, Peeli Chhatri wali Ladki and other short stories (rather long) looked at the process of de-humanisation thrust upon people due to globalisation. Kashinath Singh, Yogendra Ahuja, Prabha Khaitan, Khalid Javed, Zauki and others critically and creatively raised their voices against this market driven cultural alienation.

However, the affirmative literary trend of this period in Hindi-Urdu and almost all Indian languages has been the rise of voices from the margins. Hierarchies based on caste, gender, religion, location, sexuality or any other have been challenged. This has led to literary discourses based on the writings by Dalits, women, minorities, adivasis, LGBTQ and other such groups. These identity-based discourses made a special place for autobiographies since they carried very intense accounts of social discrimination. Prabha Khaitan’s Anya se Ananya, Omprakash Valmiki’s Joothan, Tulsi Ram’s Murdahiya and Manikarnika, Sheoraj Singh Bechain’s Mera Bachpan Mere Kandhon Par, Dalit women’s autobiographies—Dohra Abhishap (Kaushalya Baisantri), Shikanje ka Dard (Sushila Takbhoure)—are all significant witnesses of their life and times. In Urdu too, notable writings by authors such as Jayant Parmar, Ghazanfar (Divyani), Sagheer Rahmani (Tukhm e Khoon), Chanderbhan Khayal and Ibn-e-Kanwal brought the voices from the margins to fore front. New aesthetics inclusive of dalit consciousness evolved and thus brought around a paradigm shift. By raising a voice against caste-based discrimination such literature endowed respectability and legitimacy to new values in literary aesthetics.

Jayant Parmar
Credit- Youtube
Prabha Khaitan
pkfoundation.org
Omprakash Valmiki
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Kausalya Baisantri
wordwithoutborders.org
Nirmala Putul
notnul.com

Literature from the margins is the literature of resistance and protest, actively engaging with social movements that aimed at ending discrimination. Following the ideology of Jyotiba Rao Phule and B R Ambedkar, dalit writers foregrounded the issue of caste not only in terms of identity but also as an imminent condition of human survival and dignity. In fact, dalit women had to face double marginalisation due to both, their caste as well as gender. Narratives of sexual violence made out a strong case for dalit feminism. Dalit women writers also exposed the paradoxes created by patriarchy within their own community. Vimal Thorat, Rajni Tilak, Anita Bharti, Rajatrani Meenu are women writers speaking out for oppression suffered by dalit women.

Adivasi literature likewise raises the issue of marginalisation and double marginalisation in case of women writers but more importantly the primary concern of adivasi literature is the issue of ‘development versus displacement’. As a direct impact of globalisation, adivasis have been forcibly driven away from their water resources, forest and land (Jal, Jungle, Zameen in Hindi). Adivasi literature has effectively engaged with environment and ecology. And also, with their respective tradition of oral languages. It takes pride in tracing the history of adivasi revolutionaries against the British during colonial rule, which has been sidelined in the historic narrative of nationalism.

Women’s writing in the last decade of the century continues to change the optics of the literary sensibility. The feminist discourse, in a variety of ways, theorizes the narratives of ‘everyday’ in a woman’s life. It confronts patriarchy and brings out several paradoxes within the familial structures that restrict the autonomy of women. Gagan Gill, Savita Singh, Anamika Katyayani, Neelesh Raghuvanshi, Sushila Takbhore, Nirmala Putul and many more women poets in Hindi have helped to establish women's writing as a distinct category. In Urdu too women poets such as Tarranum, Ana Dehlavi, Bilqees Zafrul Hasan, Bushra Ejaz, Ameeta Parsuram and many others have carved out feminist space in expressing the specific women’s issues and their angst. The seething desire for liberation along with the expression for sexual identity and desire challenge the earlier literary canons. Women's writing particularly has intersected the myth of universality arising due to the implications of race, class and gender in literary studies. Such Hindi writers as Maitreyi Pushpa, Manisha Kulshreshtha, Alpana Mishr have contributed significantly to the realistic and poignant portrayals of the agency of women in both their short stories and novels. The same could be said of Urdu women writers such as Nigar Azeem, Sarvat Khan and others. What needs to be pointed out is that these women writers in Hindi and Urdu unhesitatingly chose the erstwhile tabooed subjects and articulated their demand for gender justice through short and long fiction. This can be considered as a special feature of modern and in fact contemporary literatures in both the languages. Women’s autobiographies as a separate genre also made it possible to present the convergence of the personal and the political with a fresh perspective. Women's writing, while endorsing traditional feminist concerns, also explores other cultural and political dimensions of layered and intersectional subjectivities. For instance, the dalit and adivasi women writers have focused on the layered social discrimination that these women confront, marginalized because of their gendered as well as the caste based or tribal identity. The complexity of the socio-political position that women often inhabit is given expression uninhibitedly. 

While sexuality and desire have found expression in women’s writing, the same is also true in the writings centered around the issues of alternate sexuality. LGBTQ has emerged as another category to be engaged with, as not just marginal identity but also to be given space within the mainstream. In Hindi novels such as Post Box No. 203 Nala Sopara by Chitra Mudgal or Teesri Tali by Pradeep Saurabh, or then Renu Behal’s Urdu novel, Mere Hone me Kya Burai Hai? sensitively explore the world and struggles of the third gender. This literature can no longer be dismissed. The respectability acquired by this literature needs to be noted for the value cherished, that of questioning the stereotype sexual binary and the according of legitimacy to the rights of the LGBTQ communities.

In the last few decades since both Hindi and Urdu literatures have become more inclusive and have grown in diversity, this has posed challenges for the literary critics to engage with and evolve new critical tools and perspectives. Modern identities, in theory and praxis, are layered. Hence, a critical tradition that explores the question of identity must take cognizance of this complexity. New theoretical paradigms have emerged to identify the problem of identity as a multifaceted one. With the changing focus of values cherished today, the critical lens used to apprehend issues and problematics regarding caste, race, class, gender, sexuality, ability etc. have had to change. When aesthetic articulation goes through change, critical theory and tools of investigation too shift.

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Issue 100 (Nov-Dec 2021)

feature Indian Literatures – The Abiding Values
  • Editorial
    • GSP Rao: Editorial Observations
  • Assamese
    • Bibhash Choudhury: Contemporary Assamese Literature - Abiding Values
  • Bengali
    • Angshuman Kar: Abiding Value(s) in Bengali Poetry of the Last Three Centuries
    • Arnab Saha: Post-Independence Bengali Fiction - Features and Values
  • Gujarati
    • Dileep Jhaveri: Gujarati Literature – Abiding Values
  • Hindi-Urdu
    • Sukrita Paul Kumar & Rekha Sethi: The Changing Dynamics of Values - Modern Hindi and Urdu Literatures
  • Indian English Literature
    • Charanjeet Kaur: Diversities, Amorphousness and Value Systems in Indian English Literature
    • Kalpana Rao: The Question of Abiding Values and Indian Writing in English
  • Kannada
    • Mamta Sagar: Compassion is the core of dharma
  • Kashmiri
    • Abid Ahmad: Kashmiri Literature Between Tradition and Modernity
  • Maithili
    • Udaya Narayana Singh: Maithili literature at the Crossroads - Questioning the Values
  • Malayalam
    • Syam Sudhakar: Culture of Resistance - Liberation, Tolerance and Malayalam Literature
  • Marathi
    • Sachin Ketkar: Of Bhakti and Maharashtra Dharma - Tradition and Modernity in Marathi Literature[1]
  • Northeast Literatures
    • Bibhash Choudhury: Writings from the Indian Northeast - Abiding Values
    • Mamang Dai: Along the Way
  • Odia
    • Sachidanand Mohanty: Odia literature - Some lasting Values
  • Punjabi
    • Tejwant Singh Gill: Punjabi Literature - The Abiding Values
      Part-II – Vars and Modern Punjabi Literature
    • Tejwant Singh Gill: Punjabi Literature - The Abiding Values
      Part-I – Spiritual Values and Kissas
  • Sanskrit
    • Atreya Sarma: Abiding Values in Indic Literature
    • Usha Kishore: Sanskriti - Gleanings from the Sanskrit
  • Telugu
    • N S Murty & Atreya Sarma: Abiding Values in Telugu Literature
  • Folk Paintings
    • Sougata Das: Folk Paintings of India - A Unifying Diversity